The African-American Muslim and political leader, Malcolm X, viewed the straightening of hair amongst Black men, known as the conk, as a denial of their Black identity. In his book, The Autobiography of Malcolm X he described it as 'a step toward self-degradation ... I admire any Negro man who has never had himself conked, or who has had the sense to get rid of it - as I finally did'

Black civil rights activists saw the chemical alteration of Black hair as an attempt to transform the Black body into a white body. This attitude led to the explosion of natural hairstyles such as braiding and cornrows. To have natural hair, despite the inferior connotations assigned to it in the past, has long been connected with self-pride for Black people. It was the preferred style amongst nineteenth century African-American and Black British intellectuals.

In the 1950s, avant garde female musicians, including Nina Simone adopted the au naturel, the forerunner of the Afro. This natural halo-like hairstyle was worn throughout the African diaspora by men and women of all age groups during the 1960s and 1970s. It became part of the Civil Rights and Black Consciousness Movements, which dominated American politics and connected with other movements throughout the African diaspora. The Afro was equally appreciated as a Black fashion statement.

The emergence of dreadlocks in Britain in the 1970s was part of the rise of the Rastafarian religion, which was established in Jamaica in the 1930s. The cultivation of natural hair into twisted strands was a meaningful aesthetic which connected wearers with their African heritage. Together, the Afro and dreadlocks were mechanisms available to reassure and remind Black people of their own self-worth.

In the 21st century, the range of hairstyles created by Black women and men is incredible: it can be bleached blonde; relaxed and dyed into multi-colours; or the hair can be arranged into a bouffant of asymmetrical towering curls; wigs and hair extensions are used as casually as hair accessories. The Afro and dreadlocks are experiencing a renaissance.

Yet despite the long history of Black hairstyles and their resistance to the denigration of a Black identity, the decisions Black men and women make about their hairstyles can still cause consternation. For example, to wear hair extensions can be read as a sign of fraudulence and disrespect to one's authentic Black identity; and to wear dreadlocks despite the ubiquitous presence and honourable religious beliefs of Rastafarianism, can still ignite family feuds. What is evident is that, regardless of how hairstyles are created, they all contribute to Black aesthetics and to the different ways in which Black people can be modern.

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